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Background

Wheat powdery mildew, caused by Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici ( Bgt ) is one of the most significant diseases affecting global wheat production. Breeding for disease resistance ( R ) genes against Bgt often follows a ‘boom-bust’ cycles, where cultivars with effective resistance are widely deployed on an expanding area until virulence emerges in the avirulence ( Avr ) pathogen population. While extensive effort has been devoted to identifying and cloning R genes, Avr genes remain relatively understudied, limiting our understanding of R-Avr interactions. That said, understanding R-Avr interactions is crucial for developing durable resistance strategies.

Results

We conducted whole genome sequencing on 245 Bgt isolates collected from major wheat-growing regions in China, identifying 120 genetically unique isolates. Each of these unique isolates was inoculated and phenotyped on a diverse panel of wheat germplasm. Through Genome-Wide Association Analysis (GWAS) in both Bgt and wheat, we identified 65 Avr loci and 251 R loci overlapping with nine and eight cloned Avr or R genes, respectively. On average, each isolate carries eight Avr alleles, ranging from one to 17. Little geographical preference for Avr alleles or their combinations was observed, suggesting that disease resistance breeding against this pathogen should be coordinated at the national level. The level of resistance level is positively correlated with the number of R alleles carried by a wheat line, and the average frequency of an R allele is 2% among the wheat panel, indicating the potential for accumulating R alleles in breeding programs. We mapped 212 R-Avr interactions based on joint GWAS using both plant and pathogen genomes and cross-species epistasis, where a network of interactions was formed between wheat and Bgt . These interactions indicate that pyramiding five major R loci has the potential to confer resistance to half of the Avr loci. As a proof of concept, we successfully verified two previously described R - Avr pairs using tobacco experiments. Furthermore, we provided molecular validation evidence for three new Avr genes, including Bgt-50651 , BgtE-5826 and BgtE-20009 , and two new R-Avr interactions. Among them, Bgt-50651 interacts with Pm1a , Pm2a , and another unidentified R gene located near the Pm6 / Pm52 interval.

Conclusion

Our study provides a framework for understanding the genetic interaction between plants and pathogens. The discovery of novel R / Avr loci and their complex interaction network underscores the need to integrate crop and pathogen genetic background, particularly the R / Avr allele composition, into breeding program design. These findings have significant implications for developing durable resistance strategies in wheat alongside offering valuable insights into the broader dynamics of plant-pathogen interactions.